This area includes the Tasman Sea and the Pacific Ocean from the 150°E to the 120°E meridians (Figure B14.1). The total surface area is 27.7 million km² with only 0.4 million km² of shelf area. In the Tasman Sea the well-defined East Australian Current flows south along the East Coast of Australia but becomes weaker and diffused south of Sydney. Part of this current system turns eastward after coming in contact with the more southerly West Wind Drift along the northern edges of the Southern Oceans and southern margin of the Tasman Sea. It then turns northward along the two coasts of the South Island of New Zealand. On the east coast of New Zealand, this current encounters the south-flowing East Cape Current and where the two meet, they merge moving offshore forming the Wairarapa Gyre as they do so, which is situated above the Chatham Rise, a raised part of the sea bed extending to the Chatham Islands further eastward.

The region in general is characterized by deepwaters with many seamounts about which mesopelagic fish resources, e.g. orange roughy and oreos, are exploited. To the Southeast of New Zealand there is an extensive raised area, the Campbell Plateau, of around 200 m depth. Another more shallow area extends from the centre of New Zealand in a north-westerly direction, the Lord Howe Rise, continuing to the eponymous mid-Tasman Sea islands.

Figure B14.1 The Southwest Pacific (Area 81)

The types of habitats that are exploited in this area are most varied and support also most varied types of fisheries, from coastal continental to deepwater seamount fisheries. In fact, New Zealand and, to a lesser extent, Australia have been pioneers in developing profitable and continuing deepwater (>600m) trawl fisheries. The fisheries resources consist of the coastal species of the Australian States of New South Wales, Northern Victoria and offshore Tasmania, and of New Zealand, the pelagic resources of the South Western Pacific and the mesopelagic species (of which the most important are orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) and hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) associated with the sea bottom rises of the Tasman Sea, to the south and east of New Zealand and the deep water west of the South Island.

Profile of catches

Nominal catches from the Southwest Pacific increased from less than 50 000t in 1950 to 917 000t in 1992 and then gradually declined to 740 000t in 2002 (Figure B14.2 and Table D14). The Southwest Pacific has regularly been producing the smallest catches of all FAO Statistical Area since 1950. Four taxonomic groups account for 78.8 percent of the catches: gadids (40.4 percent), miscellaneous demersal fishes (19.2 percent), Miscellaneous pelagic fishes (8.2 percent) and squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses (10.6 percent), (Figures B14.2, 3 and 4). Highlights on catch trends and major changes in the area follow, together with a brief summary review of the status of the main fish stocks extracted from published material and other available information. In this context, of particular relevance are the fishery status reports of the Australia Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (http://www.affa.gov. au) and the status of stocks of the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries (http://www.fish.govt.nz). Table D.14 summarizes further the information on catch and trends and stock status.

Figure B14.2 Annual nominal catches ('000t) by ISSCAAP species groups in the Southwest Pacific (Area 81)

Figure B14.3 Annual nominal catches ('000t) of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 32, Southwest Pacific (Area 81)

Figure B14.4 Annual nominal catches ('000t) of selected species in ISSCAAP Groups 34 & 37, Southwest Pacific (Area 81)

Figure B14.5 Annual nominal catches ('000t) of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 57, Southwest Pacific (Area 81)

New Zealand

New Zealand catches from FAO Area 81 have increased many fold, from 58 400t in 1970 to a peak of 637 880t in 1998, followed by a small reduction to 556 844t in 2002, representing 129 species for which separate landing statistics are maintained. The major development in New Zealand's commercial fisheries has been the continuing expansion of landings of hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae). In 2002, this species represented 34.6 percent of landings, an order of magnitude larger than the following species, the Wellington Flying squid Nototodarus sloani with 8.9 percent and southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis) with 7.6 percent. Other important species are oreos (Pseudocyttus maculatus, Allocyttus niger, and Neocyttus rhomboidalis ), Carangids Trachurus spp., snoek Thyrsites atun and ling Genypterus blacodes . In terms of the domestic markets, the species in main demand are snapper Pagrus auratus and tarakihi Nemadactylus macropterus, with catches in 2002 of 6 571t and 6 149t, respectively.

Australia

Management of Australia's fisheries is a complex mix of Commonwealth and State responsibility with the States managing the fisheries out to 3 nautical miles from shore and the Commonwealth managing those beyond that to the 200 mile limit. Under the Offshore Constitutional Settlement, agreement has been reached to place many fisheries under single jurisdiction, either Commonwealth, State or Territory. Commonwealth Fisheries are managed by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) under the Fisheries Management Act 1991 and the Fisheries Administration Act 1991 (Caton, McLoughlin and Staples, 1997), (http://www.afma.gov.au /plans/afmapercent20annualpercent20operationalpercent20planpercent202001-2002/default.php).

The Annual Operational Plan has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of Section 77 of the Fisheries Administration Act 1991 and specified Government legislation and guidelines including the provisions of the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Orders for the Report of Operations to which AFMA is subject under the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997 . This Plan describes how the AFMA will pursue its objectives for the 2001-2002 year and specific actions that the Authority proposes to take to achieve the longer term directions contained in AFMA's Corporate Plan for 2000-2005. The Plan also contains performance information and details of AFMA's budget, resourcing policies and internal performance improvement program and proposes action to implement AFMA's Strategic Human Resource Development Plan. Both the Corporate Plan and the Operational Plan are based upon the legislative objectives set out in the Administration Act and the Fisheries Management Act 1991 and provide the information against which AFMA's performance may be measured and reported through the Annual Report. AFMA's focus for 2001-2002 continues to be on developing, implementing and refining the management arrangements, systems, policies and processes that underpin the sustainable, economically efficient and cost-effective management of Australia's Commonwealth fisheries.

Australian fisheries are undertaken within a comprehensive Oceans Policy (http://www.oceans.gov.au/read_the_policy_v1.jsp) that sets in place the framework for integrated and ecosystem-based planning and management for all of Australia's marine jurisdictions. It includes a vision, a series of goals and principles and policy guidance for a national Oceans Policy. Building on existing effective sectoral and jurisdictional mechanisms, it promotes ecologically sustainable development of the resources of the oceans and the encouragement of internationally competitive marine industries, while ensuring the protection of marine biological diversity.

At the core of the Oceans Policy is the development of Regional Marine Plans, based on large marine ecosystems, which will be binding on all Commonwealth agencies. The first Regional Marine Plan will be developed for the south-eastern region of Australia's Exclusive Economic Zone. Broadly, this will include waters off Victoria, Tasmania, southern New South Wales and eastern South Australia.

A major new initiative for marine research in Australia has recently been announced (http://www.csiro.au/index.asp?type=blank&id=Flagship_Oceans). This programme, noting that Australia's marine jurisdiction is likely to be the world's largest under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (70 percent of Australian territory) is aimed at bringing together science and industry to tackle key challenges in this vital field.

New Zealand

Fisheries management in New Zealand is undertaken within a Strategic Framework that seeks the achievement of sustainable fisheries in a healthy aquatic ecosystem (http://www.fish.govt.nz/sustainability/research/planning/strategic_plan2.htm). The Fisheries Act 1996 restates and enhances sustainability policies within New Zealand's fisheries waters and provides for more explicit environmental standards and gives further opportunities for the users of the fisheries to accept increasing responsibility for management. From the Fisheries Act 1996, "ensuring sustainability" means (a) maintaining the potential of fisheries resources to meet the reasonably foreseeable needs of future generations and (b) avoiding, remedying, or mitigating any adverse effects of fishing on the aquatic environment. The Fisheries Act 1996 also requires that in utilization of fisheries resources (a) associated or dependent species should be maintained above a level that ensures their long-term viability; (b) biological diversity of the aquatic environment should be maintained and (c) habitat of particular significance for fisheries management should be protected.

The 1996 Fisheries Act and the Government's Environment 2010 Strategy are the twin foundation stones of the Ministry of Fisheries long-term strategic focus as articulated in Changing Course - Towards Fisheries 2010. Changing Course sets out the framework for developing the strategy to manage fisheries into the future. It identifies several requirements: (a) Inter-generational equity; (b) biodiversity; (c) environmental bottom lines; (d) the precautionary principle; (e) research, science and technology; (f) protecting international competitiveness; (g) sustainable property rights; (h) least-cost policy tools; (j) pricing of infrastructure; (k) internalization of external environmental costs; (l) defining the limits of fishery resource use and substitution and (m) social costs and benefits.

In 1986, New Zealand introduced a comprehensive quota management system (QMS) to manage and conserve the major commercial fisheries within the New Zealand 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The primary objectives of the quota management system are to ensure sustainable catches over the long term while providing for these to be harvested efficiently and with maximum benefit to New Zealand.

Within the quota management system, Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) have been issued for 42 species, or groups of species, covering 257 separate fish stocks. ITQs provide the owner with an ongoing property right to a portion of the annual harvest of a fish stock, which can be traded, leased or caught. The quota management system has successfully replaced traditional fisheries management methods (using input controls) and has facilitated the rationalization of investment in vessels and onshore plants by providing quota owners with the incentives to minimize costs and maximize product values. New Zealand's Seafood Industry is paying full costs for Government services of management and research and receiving no subsidies.

Total Allowable Catches (TACs) are set for each fish stock to maintain the population size at, or above, that which can produce the maximum sustainable yield (BMSY). Determination of a TAC under the MSY objective relies on estimation of the current biomass and of the productivity of the stocks to determine either the Maximum Constant Yield (MCY) or the Maximum Average Yield (MAY). Maximum constant yield is based on taking the same catch from the fishery year after year and is defined as "the maximum constant catch that is estimated to be sustainable, with an acceptable level of risk, at all probable future levels of biomass" . A maximum average yield strategy is based on the estimation of the Current Annual Yield (CAY), recognizing that population sizes change from year to year, independent of fishing mortality. Current annual yield is obtained by applying a reference fishing mortality to an estimate of next year's fishable biomass. Over time, a current average yield strategy allows the estimation of the Maximum Average Yield (MAY), which is used to interpret MSY.

Stock assessments for each of the major fisheries are reviewed annually. The Ministry of Fisheries holds annual consultations to determine fisheries research requirements and to review the results of stock assessments for advice to the Minister. Research projects, to assess the status of fisheries, are let by tender by the Ministry of Fisheries. Stakeholders, including the Seafood Industry, Maori, recreation and conservation interests, are actively involved in the research planning, stock assessment and management review processes. However, still by 1997, the status of 64 percent of the 149 stocks in the Quota Management System was unknown. While the initial TACs in 1986 were set below the historical catch to promote stock rebuilding inshore finfish species, the extent to which stock rebuilding has occurred for many of these species is unknown.

Management by quota of the major species in New Zealand fisheries has enhanced the fish stocks and economics of New Zealand fisheries over the last twelve years, a period when the resources and economics of similar fisheries have been depleted in other countries. The Seafood Industry is paying the full costs for fisheries management, enforcement and research, an annual investment of 3 percent of gross returns. Government investment in fisheries related research is very low compared with its investments in other primary sectors.

Recent developments by the Government have included an Independent Review of the Fisheries Act 1996 which resulted in recommendations that: (1)the roles of Government and fisheries stakeholders be fundamentally realigned; (2)transparent, integrated consultation and decision making processes be implemented; (3)the Quota Management System be simplified and made less prescriptive and (4)some responsibility for fisheries management be handed to fisheries rights holders.

The Government accepted the recommendations and began introducing legislation to bring the fisheries management regime into line with the recommendations. The key features of the amendment are: (1)providing for integration of fisheries management, including approval of fisheries plans; (2)a new catch balancing regime based primarily on civil, rather than criminal, penalties; (3)a new cost recovery regime and (4)allowing commercial fisheries administrative functions to be devolved to private organizations

Other amendments include provisions such as: (1)enabling certain by-catch stocks to be managed below maximum sustainable yield; (2)enabling fishers to carry forward into the next fishing year up to 10 per cent of any annual catch entitlement that has not been fully caught; and (3)enabling a new non-Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) fishing permit to be issued to a relative of a permit holder who has died, despite the moratorium.

The Fisheries Act 1996 (No. 2) Amendment Act 1999 has enabled New Zealand to control the fishing activities of New Zealand-flagged vessels and nationals on the high seas.

In the last year, there was been a major enquiry into the allocation of quotas, prompted by concerns as to how rights were obtained in the recently-developed scampi (Metanephrops challengeri) fisheries. A major milestone has been the finalization of a proposal for allocation of catch rights to indigenous fishermen.

The bibliographic references are available through the hyperlink displayed in "Source of Information".