Most of the commercially important stocks within the region are classified as being between fully exploited and overexploited (Table D7). The stocks that are currently overexploited are frequently, but not always, a result of historical overexploitation rather than current overfishing.

The commercially important small pelagic stocks in all three countries are closely monitored, both by recording commercial landings and by making use of regular hydroacoustic surveys. In South Africa, the stocks of pilchard and anchovy are managed on the basis of formal management procedures, which have negotiated decision rules developed using rigorous simulation models of the fishery (Cochrane, Butterworth and Payne, 1997; De Oliveira et al., 1998). In Angola and Namibia, these stocks are managed under a licence and TAC system that adjusts allowable catch annually depending on the analyses of stock status. The status of the small pelagic resources of the region varies from stock to stock, with current conditions apparently being generally more favourable in the south and less so in the north.

This section on the Southeast Atlantic deals with the waters adjacent to the coastlines of Angola, Namibia and South Africa and extends well into the high seas to the south and west (Figure B7.1). The islands of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha also fall within Area 47. Nominal landings made by South Africa in the western Indian Ocean are included in Area 47. However, except for those from the Agulhas Bank, which is considered a part of the Benguela upwelling system, these landings form a very small part of the total for the region. The rest of the region is dominated by the Benguela upwelling system, which supports relatively high production along much of the coastline of these three countries.
The northern border of the Benguela upwelling system occurs at the thermal front with the warm Angola Current. This normally occurs between about 15°S and 17°S on the coastal shelf in southern Angola. North of the Angola-Benguela Front (ABF), most of the coastal shelf of Angola is dominated by the southward-flowing and less productive Angola Current. The Benguela ecosystem itself is subdivided into the northern Benguela system and the southern Benguela system. These are separated by the partial barrier of a very intense upwelling cell off the town of Lüderitz, some 300 km north of the border between Namibia and South Africa. Area 47 covers a total surface area of about 18.4 million km², with less than 0.5 million km² being shelf area. This part of the Southeast Atlantic is a very variable and dynamic region from the point of view of oceanography. This variability significantly influences the marine living resources (Hutchings et al., 2009). The last three decades have been characterized by several major oceanographic events that have influenced the dynamics of several important fish stocks.
One of these is the occasional occurrence of low-oxygen water spreading across the bottom of the Namibia shelf (Bartholomae and Plas, 2007). A major such event occurred in the period 1993–94. In this period, low-oxygen water occupied most of the central and northern Namibian shelf, leading to the almost total loss of a cohort of juvenile hake (Woodhead et al., 1997, Hamukuaya, O’Toole and Woodhead, 1998). Low oxygen levels near the seabed have also affected the distribution of hake over the Namibian shelf in a number of years (Mas-Riera et al., 1990, Woodhead et al., 1998). The other major oceanographic event affecting the region is the “Benguela Niño” that recurs about once a decade. Benguela Niños are extreme warm events that can be seen as abnormally high and persistent sea surface temperatures (SSTs) along the coast of Angola and Namibia (Shannon et al., 1986). These anomalous warm events cause strong rainfall anomalies (Rouault et al., 2003) and drastically modify fish distribution and abundance (Boyer et al., 2001). Major Benguela Niños occurred in 1934, 1949, 1963, 1984 (Shannon et al., 1986) and in 1995 (Gammelsrød et al., 1998). The most recent Benguela Niño, in 1995, is credited with causing a 4–5° southward shift of the sardine population. It was also associated with high mortality and poor recruitment of several small pelagic fish species (Boyer and Hampton, 2001). The likely occurrence of a Benguela Niño in 2011 (IRI, 2011) will probably also create poor conditions for many fish stocks in the region (especially small pelagic fish). This will warrant more precautionary management measures to ensure the sustainability of the fisheries targeting them. In a related sequence of events, the southern Benguela system experienced an unusual sequence of a short period of intense warming in December 1999, followed rapidly by a period of strong cooling early in 2000. This sequence was associated with record recruitment to the local anchovy stock, although any causal link is not well understood.

Figure B7.1 The Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

Total nominal landings from the Southeast Atlantic (Area 47) increased from less than 0.5 million tonnes in 1950 to slightly more than 3 million tonnes in 1968 (Figure B7.2; Table D7). Landings varied at about 3 million tonnes until the end of the 1970s, before declining to fluctuate about 2.3 million tonnes in most of the following decade. They then decreased abruptly from 2.8 million tonnes in 1987 to 1.3 million tonnes in 1991. This was driven partly by a large decline in anchovy landings and policy changes in Namibia after it gained independence in 1990. Landings have remained under 2 million tonnes since then, with an average landing of about 1.6 million tonnes between 2000 and 2002 that declined to about 1.2 million tonnes in 2009. Landings from the region are dominated by ISSCAAP Group 35 (herring, sardine and anchovies), Group 37 (miscellaneous pelagic fishes [including horse mackerel]) and Group 32 (cods, hakes and haddocks) (Figure B7.2). The most important stocks within these groups were all subjected to heavy fishing pressure at different periods between the 1960s and the 1980s. In some cases, this fishing pressure led to quite severe declines in abundance that was reflected in declining landings. The position was stabilized in several of these cases by imposition of more rigorous management regimes.

Figure B7.2 Annual nominal catches by ISSCAAP species groups in the Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

The small pelagic fisheries of the region, which together account for the highest proportion of the landings by mass, are dominated by six taxonomic groups: Cape horse mackerel (Trachurus capensis) and Cunene horse mackerel (T. trecae), Southern African pilchard (Sardinops sagax, also still referred to as S. ocellatus), Southern African anchovy (Engraulis capensis), sardinellas (round Sardinella aurita and Madeiran or flat S. maderensis) and Whitehead’s round herring (Etrumeus whiteheadi). In 2009, Cape horse mackerel accounted for the largest landings of small pelagics, followed by South African pilchard and anchovy and then, substantially lower, the sardinellas and Whitehead’s round herring (Figures B7.3 and B7.4).
Cape horse mackerel is caught mainly in Namibia and in southern Angola, especially in the cold season. Cunene horse mackerel is the main exploited species off Angola, especially north of Namibe Province. Landings of the two horse mackerel species have declined since the late 1970s and mid-1980s. This was probably caused by the effects of heavy exploitation, particularly in Namibia and Angola, in this period. In both species, heavy exploitation in the late 1970s and 1980s was followed by a large reduction in fishing mortality when the then Soviet Union fleet was drastically reduced after 1989. The decrease in landings in this period also reflected this reduced effort. Effort has been increasing since the mid-1990s in most cases. Declared landings of Cape horse mackerel were 223 000 tonnes in 2008, the lowest since the mid-1970s, and increased slightly to 233 000 tonnes in 2009. Declared landings of Cunene horse mackerel have been fluctuating around 30 000 tonnes since 2003, with a very marked decline to 13 000 tonnes in 2009, partially as a consequence of stricter regulation in place in Angola. These landing values are very low in relation to typical landings of the 1970s and 1980s.
Declared landings of Southern African pilchard increased steadily from a low of about 105 000 tonnes in 1996 to a peak of about 400 000 tonnes in 2004, to decrease again to about 110 000 tonnes in 2009. Declared landings of Southern African anchovy have increased steadily since falling to a minimum of 42 000 tonnes in 1996, fluctuating between 135 000 tonnes in 2006 and 289 000 tonnes in 2001, with a value of 266 000 tonnes in 2009 (Figure B7.4). Landings of Whitehead’s round herring fluctuated without a clear trend from the early 1980s, with a small peak in the mid-1990s and a maximum of 97 000 tonnes recorded in 1997. Since then, landings have been between 40 000 and 65 000 tonnes, apart from in 2000 and 2005 when they fell below 40 000 tonnes (Figure B7.4). The higher landings in 1995 (79 000 tonnes) and 1997 (97 000 tonnes) were probably, at least in part, a result of fishing effort being diverted to round herring from the struggling anchovy fishery, as the round herring is not regulated by a TAC in South Africa at present.
North of the Benguela front, primarily in Angolan waters, sardinellas are the dominant clupeoid in landings. The two species tend to alternate in dominance. Between 1994 and 2004, the flat sardinella tended to dominate in surveys, but the situation has reversed since 2004. In 2009, most of the estimated sardinella biomass off Angola was composed of round sardinella (INIP, 2011). Landings of the two species combined peaked at 286 000 tonnes in 1977. After 1989, following a substantial reduction in fishing effort in the region, landings declined and were well under 100 000 tonnes in the 1990s (Figure B7.4). They increased to 114 000 tonnes in 2000 but fell again to under 30 000 tonnes in 2002, to recover slightly to 74 000 tonnes in 2009.

Figure B7.3 Annual nominal catches of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 37, Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

Figure B7.4 Annual nominal catches of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 35, Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

The taxonomic groups most important in the demersal fisheries of the region include the shallow-water (Merluccius capensis) and deep-water (M. paradoxus) Cape hakes, devil anglerfish or Cape monkfish (Lophius vomerinus), snoek (Thyrsites atun), and also dentex, including Angolan (Dentex angolensis) and especially large-eyed dentex (D. macrophthalmus), which is important in Angola (Figures B7.5, B7.6 and B7.7). North of the Benguela front, primarily in Angolan waters, sardinellas are the dominant clupeoid in landings. The two species tend to alternate in dominance. Between 1994 and 2004, the flat sardinella tended to dominate in surveys, but the situation has reversed since 2004. In 2009, most of the estimated sardinella biomass off Angola was composed of round sardinella (INIP, 2011). Landings of the two species combined peaked at 286 000 tonnes in 1977. After 1989, following a substantial reduction in fishing effort in the region, landings declined and were well under 100 000 tonnes in the 1990s (Figure B7.4). They increased to 114 000 tonnes in 2000 but fell again to under 30 000 tonnes in 2002, to recover slightly to 74 000 tonnes in 2009. consistently above 10 000 tonnes from the early 1950s through to 1968, when they started to decline. They fell below 1 000 tonnes in 1980, and remained below this value until 1993. This marked the start of a recovery, leading to declared landings of more than 30 000 tonnes in 2009. Significant dentex landings are also recorded under the heading of large-eyed dentex, and these have ranged from 40 tonnes in 1994 to a maximum of 43 200 tonnes in 1976. Only 56 tonnes of large-eyed dentex landings were declared in 2009.

Figure B7.5 Annual nominal catches of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 32, Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

Figure B7.6 Annual nominal catches of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 34, Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

In addition to the fish species of particular commercial importance described above, a number of members of ISSCAAP Group 33(miscellaneous coastal fishes) contribute to important fisheries in the region (Figure B7.7).
The largest landings within this group, apart from dentex, are of West African croakers NEI (Pseudotolithus spp.), which are caught mainly by Angola. Declared landings of these fish fluctuated around 20 000 tonnes between 2002 and 2009. The period of increase in landings started in 1998, when they went from under 2 000 tonnes the previous year to more than 7 000 tonnes. Declared landings of mild (southern) meagre, known locally as kabeljou or kob (Argysomus inodorus, previously A. hololepidotus), are made mainly in Namibia and South Africa. Mild meagre landings have shown a sharp increase from an average about 1 200 tonnes before 2000 to an average of 22 000 tonnes in 2008–09. Declared landings of porgies and seabreams NEI (Sparidae) peaked at more than 61 000 tonnes in 1966 but soon dropped and have not been above 12 000 tonnes since 1970. Landings have been under 1 000 tonnes since 2000. The declared landings of southern meagre, dentex NEI and West African croakers NEI have increased very markedly in the last decade. The most recent landings are among the highest on record. The relatively high average landings of gobies are misleading. Apart from very high landings of 21 000 tonnes of gobies in 1998, landings of the group are generally well under 500 tonnes/year. From 2000 to 2009, the following groups generated annual landings that averaged more than 1 000 tonnes: sea catfishes NEI (Ariidae); panga seabream (Pterogymnus laniarius); groupers, seabasses NEI (Serranidae); threadfins, tasselfishes NEI (Polynemidae); bigeye grunt (Brachydeuterus auritus); croakers, drums NEI (Sciaenidae); pargo seabreams NEI (Pagrus spp.); sand (locally “white”) steenbras (Lithognathus mormyrus); grunts, sweetlips NEI (Haemulidae); and Canary drum (Baardman, Umbrina canariensis). Declared landings of picarels NEI (Spicara spp.), geelbek croaker (Atractoscion aequidens), carpenter seabream (Argyrozona argyrozona), black seabream (Spondyliosoma cantharus), porgies, seabreams NEI (Sparidae), mullets NEI (Mugilidae) and white stumpnose (Rhabdosargus globiceps) ranged between 100 and 500 tonnes/year in the same period. Sharks, rays and chimaeras (ISSCAAP Group 38) did not use to account for substantial declared landings in Area 47. However, their landings have increased rapidly in recent years. Annual declared landings of the group have averaged 17 500 tonnes since 2000. These are made up primarily of: blue shark (Prionace glauca); unidentified sharks, rays, skates, etc.; unidentified raja rays; shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus); and Cape elephantfish (Callorhincus capensis); their landings peaked in 2007 at a total of some 28 600 tonnes. Landings then declined to about 15 800 tonnes in 2009.
In recent years, there has been substantial interest in exploitation of the deep-sea species of the Southeast Atlantic (Area 47), including orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus), alfonsino (Beryx splendens) and Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides). Landings of Patagonian toothfish have been taken in the EEZ of South Africa at the Prince Edwards Islands (Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources [CCAMLR] Subareas 58.6 and 58.7). Therefore, they fall outside the geographic area of this review. Almost all of the deepwater fishing in the Southeast Atlantic has been undertaken in Namibian waters. Landings of alfonsino peaked at more than 4 000 tonnes in 1997 but declined thereafter. The average yearly landings in the 2000s reached only 360 tonnes, with just over 300 tonnes declared in 2009. Declared landings of orange roughy reached a peak of more than 18 000 tonnes in 1997, but declined steadily after that to 380 tonnes in 2005. The declared landings for 2008 and 2009 did not reach 10 tonnes.

Figure B7.7 Annual nominal catches of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 33, Southeast Atlantic (FAO Area 47)

Several crustacean species support valuable fisheries in Area 47 (Figure B7.8). Geryon crabs, dominated by the red crab (Chaceon maritae), are taken in both Namibian and Angolan waters. Recorded landings of Geryon crabs peaked at more than 10 000 tonnes in 1993 but fell in the following years, with average yearly landings in 2000–08 of about 3 800 tonnes. The highest declared landings of crustaceans were of shrimps, particularly the deep-water rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) and the striped red shrimp (Aristeus varidens). Declared landings of deep-water rose shrimp were more than 5 600 tonnes in 2001, the highest figure since the start of the 1990s. However, the landings declined to 1 400 tonnes in 2005 and to 160 tonnes in 2009, probably as a result of stringent management measures imposed on the fishery. The same pattern was observed with landings of the striped red shrimp, which reached 3 400 tonnes in 2001, the highest recorded since 1987. Landings declined to just over 360 tonnes in 2005 and 250 tonnes in 2009, after major fluctuations (reaching 1 200 tonnes in 2007).
The Cape rock lobster (Jasus lalandii) and southern spiny lobster (Palinurus gilchristi) occur towards the south of the region, with the Cape rock lobster occurring on the west coast of Namibia and South Africa, and the southern spiny lobster off the south coast of South Africa. Annual landings of Cape rock lobster have levelled off under TAC management at about 2 500 tonnes after a steady decline since the peak of more than 25 000 tonnes per year in the 1950s. Landings in 2009 were just over 2 100 tonnes. Landings of southern spiny lobster, also managed by a TAC, were reasonably constant between about 800 tonnes and 1 100 tonnes in the 1990s. They declined and became more variable after 1999, with an average of 540 tonnes in the 2000s and about 370 tonnes in 2009. The island of Saint Helena also occurs in Area 47, and it has recorded landings of Tristan da Cunha rock lobster (Jasus tristani) that have been quite stable, varying between 300 and 500 tonnes, since 1980. The highest landings of more than 800 tonnes were reported for 1972 and 1976.

Figure B7.8 Annual nominal catches of selected species ISSCAAP Groups 42, 43 and 45, Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

The major fisheries for molluscs in the region are those for Cape Hope squid, also known as chokka squid (Loligo vulgaris reynaudii), and perlemoen abalone (Haliotis midae). The highest landings of squid were made in 1989 (10 730 tonnes) and, since then, landings have shown considerable variability, as would be expected from a short-lived species. Landings have varied from a peak of more than 7 500 tonnes in 1996 to a low of 2 800 tonnes in 1992 (Figure B7.9). Landings in 2009 were 10 100 tonnes. Landings of abalone have declined fairly steadily since a peak of more than 4 000 tonnes in the mid-1960s. They were maintained between about 550 and 750 tonnes from the mid-1980s to the very early 2000s, before dropping further to reach only 60 tonnes in 2008. The introduction of a total ban on the fishery in February 2008 meant that no more landings were declared in 2009. The fishery was re-opened in July 2010 with a TAC of 150 tonnes.

Figure B7.9 Annual nominal catches of selected species ISSCAAP Groups 52 and 57, Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)

In more recent years, more conservative management measures have generally been put in place. At present, the most important resources are managed either for sustainable yields or with a goal of encouraging recovery. The three countries in the region have well-developed management systems in place for the fisheries exploiting their most important stocks. Of the three countries, fisheries management is least developed in Angola. However, it is still improving and further developing its fisheries management system for the most important resources. Nevertheless, in common with most fisheries in the world, substantial problems still exist in many fisheries. There are varying underlying causes that include environmental variability, scientific uncertainty and conflicting biological and socio-economic objectives. Difficulties in MCS occur throughout the region. These are particularly significant in some coastal fisheries where access and landings are difficult to control. A documented example of this is the severe problems with illegal fishing that are being experienced in the South African abalone (perlemoen) fishery. It has been difficult to estimate the size of the illegal take, but an indication of the magnitude of the problem is that, in 2006, more than 1 million abalone individuals were confiscated by the law enforcement agency. It is estimated that the illegal catch of abalone exceeded the legal commercial catch by more than tenfold in the past decade, with a total level that currently exceeds 1 000 tonnes/year (DAFF, 2011). In addition, more than two-thirds of the illegally caught abalone that were confiscated were below the minimum legal size. The status of the abalone stock was considered too low to allow commercial exploitation in 2008. A ban on commercial abalone fishing was imposed in February 2008, with a re-opening in July 2010. In addition, recreational fishing of abalone has been forbidden since the 2003–04 fishing season.

The authors would like to thank Filomena Vaz-Velho and Kumbi Kilongo N’Singi, from the National Institute of Fisheries Research, (INIP) of Angola, Graça d’Almeida, from the National Marine Information and Research Centre (NatMIRC) of Namibia, and Johan Augustyn, Justice Matshili and Deon Durholtz, from the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF), South Africa for their valuable comments and inputs. Special thanks also to all the colleagues from INIP, NATMIRC and DAFF, who along the years have maintained high-quality fisheries research programmes providing the information this review is based on, because without their work there would still be no scientific knowledge on the status of exploited fish stocks in this region.