The stock abundance of Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) was estimated to be between its target and limit reference points and, thus, not considered to be overfished nor subject to overfishing. However, the stock will approach its limit reference points if the population fecundity decreases and fishing mortality continues to increase (Vaughan, Shertzer and Smith, 2007). Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) was not considered to be overfished nor was overfishing occurring in 2008, although uncertainties in the assessment led to the conclusion that overfishing was potentially occurring in 2008 (ASMFC, 2011).

Following a survey carried out in 2009 along the Venezuelan eastern coasts, the biomass of round sardinella (Sardinella aurita) was estimated to have decreased significantly in the last few years. This is probably because of a combined effect of natural and fishing mortality coupled with unfavourable environmental conditions that hampered recruitment. The stock currently shows signs of overexploitation, if not depletion (López, personal communication). In the United States of America, despite the reduction in commercial landings of round sardinella on the west coast of Florida since 1995, fishery independent surveys undertaken in 2003 indicated that there had been no increase in abundance in recent years. The surveys suggest that factors other than fishing may be responsible for changes in abundance (Mahmoudi et al., 2002).

For flyingfish (Hirundichthys affinis), analysis of data until 2008 suggests that the eastern Caribbean stock is not experiencing overfishing, but because of the poor regional data available, the assessment could not determine whether local depletion is taking place (FAO, 2010). As part of the CLME Project, a case study is currently focusing on the improvement in availability of fisheries catch and effort data. It is hoped that this will lead to more reliable assessments in the future (CRFM, 2010a).

No formal stock assessment of Atlantic thread herring (Opisthonema oglinum) seems available in the region.

Assessments of flathead grey mullet carried out in Mexico show that, depending on the province, the species is either exploited at the MSY (Tamaulipas) or deteriorating (Veracruz), as evidenced by the sharp decrease in catches. Current management measures include a minimum landing size of 31 cm as well as a minimum mesh size of 101 mm (SAGARPA, 2010). The most recent assessment of flathead grey mullet in Florida waters indicates that the stock was not overfished and that nor was overfishing occurring (Mahmoudi, 2008). 

Greater amberjack, together with a number of highly migratory species (blue marlin, white marlin, sailfish, albacore, and bluefin tuna), were found to be subject to high fishing mortality, with biomass below the biological threshold specified in the fishery management plan. Sailfish in the Western Atlantic is no longer overfished, but is still subject to overfishing (NMFS, 2011).

As for the common dolphinfish, any decline in the stock seems impossible to detect because of incomplete information available.
Therefore, no status could be clearly attributed from the last assessment undertaken with data from Caribbean, Venezuela, USA and Brazil (CRFM, 2010b). The standardized CPUE indices for the eastern Caribbean seem to show that the stock is not declining; however this may not be reflective of the whole Western Central Atlantic stock and precaution is required in interpreting this data.

Yellowfin tuna in the Atlantic was assessed with data up to 2006 (ICCAT, 2009). The stock was neither overfished nor subject to overfishing in 2006. However, the yellowfin tuna in the Atlantic Ocean is treated as a unit stock. The last assessment available for North Atlantic albacore stock indicates that the stock is likely to be overexploited and it recommended a reduction in its TAC (ICCAT, 2010). The assessment of the western stock of skipjack tuna, based on the data up to 2006 (ICCAT, 2009), concludes that the current catch is unlikely to be higher than the replacement yield, but no clear status was assigned.

Assessment of the king mackerel fishery in United States waters estimated that the species was not overfished in the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. However, uncertainty in stock assessments made it difficult to identify whether overfishing was occurring (SEDAR, 2009b). In the southern Caribbean, there has not been a significant change in king mackerel fishing mortality in the last ten years. Yet, it is not known whether the stock is overfished or not (CRFM, 2007). For Spanish mackerel on the South Atlantic coast of the U.S. results indicated that overfishing was not occurring, but there was uncertainty regarding the overfished status of the stock (SEDAR, 2008).

In its annual report to the United States Congress, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) indicated that several species of snappers and groupers are either subject to overfishing, overfished or both in the South Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean regions. Northern red snapper, misty grouper, Nassau grouper, red grouper, yellowedge grouper, yellowfin grouper and black seabass were indicated as both subject to overfishing and overfished in the waters of the United States of America. The status of gag grouper was previously unknown in the United States of America, but evidence was found that it was subject to overfishing in the South Atlantic and overfished and subjected to overfishing in the Gulf of Mexico (NMFS, 2011). In Mexico, the red grouper is overfished and effort reductions have been recommended (SAGARPA, 2010). Only general indications are available for some fish stocks or species. For example, in Mexico, there are insufficient data to assess stock status of various coastal fishes stocks. However, many species are considered to be deteriorating (SAGARPA, 2010).
Another example is the southern red snapper (Lutjanus purpureus) in French Guiana, where a large recruitment has been recorded in recent years, along with a large adult biomass. This may indicate that the stock might be improving, at least in the short term, but the status is still unknown because no formal assessment has been undertaken (IFREMER, 2011).

The status of shark stocks does not seem to be dealt with in a systematic way and, hence, only limited and scattered information is available. The exploitation status of sharks and rays in Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) was analyzed on the basis of data collected until 2006 (Tavares, 2009). They were found to sustain an important artisanal fishery along most of the coast and islands of the country. The author underlined the difficulty of collecting data on sharks at landing sites scattered along the coast. A total of 97 species (62 shark and 35 ray species) were recorded in the landings, with a predominance of the genera Mustelus and Rhizoprionodon. In the islands, the catch composition was dominated by Carcharhinus limbatus, C. perezi and Ginglymostoma cirratum. In contrast, catches of the industrial fishery were dominated by Prionace glauca and C. signatus. No stock assessment was carried out owing to the lack of detailed data and information. Loss of biodiversity and declines in abundance of several species were described (Tavares and Arocha, 2008), but there were still large uncertainties regarding the status of these stocks.
In Mexico, some rays (Dasyatis americana, D. sabina, Aetobatus narinari, Gymnura micrura and Rhinoptera bonasus) are known to be target species. Their populations were estimated to be exploited at their MSY. However, it was recommended that there be further increase in fishing effort (SAGARPA, 2010).
Sandbar shark, dusky shark and blacknose shark are subject to overfishing and overfished, while the shortfin mako is subject to overfishing (NMFS, 2011). Other species assessed such as finetooth shark, Atlantic sharpnose and bonnethead are neither overfished nor subject to overfishing, as were blacktip shark stocks in the Gulf of Mexico (SEDAR, 2006, 2007).

Spiny lobster in the Yucatan and Quintana Roo region, Mexico, was estimated to be exploited at around MSY. It was recommended that a reliable effort control system be established to prevent any further increase in fishing mortality (SAGARPA, 2010). However, in contrast, Chávez (2009) estimates that lobster populations in southern Mexico are overexploited.
In the southeast of the United States of America, the latest assessment could not establish the status of lobster stocks, as the results of the assessment models were rejected by an external review panel. However, new genetic data suggest that the southeast United States lobster population is highly dependent on external recruitment of postlarval lobsters from other spawning stocks throughout the Caribbean (SEDAR, 2010). However, Ehrhardt and Fitchett (2010) estimated that a significant proportion of recruitment was explained by the Floridian local population. This corroborates the conclusions of a CRFM working group that underlined that the spiny lobsters do not migrate over deep water as adults. Hence, there is a strong hypothesis that there are multiple distinct management units, although they might depend to an unknown extent on external recruitment (CRFM, 2009a). As a result, separate assessments were carried out by each Caribbean country.
In Jamaica, an assessment of the spiny lobster stock of Pedro Bank undertaken in 2009 with data until 2007 suggests the stock was not overfished and that current catches would not result in overfishing (CRFM, 2009a). These results were not conclusive, because of data limitations and poor reliability of the modelling results. However, a more recent assessment led to the recommendation that the current effort and catch  levels be closely monitored, as there is a potential danger for the fishery if the current levels are maintained (CRFM, 2010a).
In Belize, the lobster stock was assessed to be halfway between fully exploited and overexploited. The total biomass, spawning biomass and recruitment declined as a result of high fishing mortality (FAO, 2009a). Very similar results were found for the lobster stock in Nicaragua (FAO, 2009c) where fishing mortality was found to be too high and exploitation rates were not sustainable. An assessment undertaken within the CRFM for Turks and Caicos islands concluded that overfishing was occurring in 2005 and 2006. The assessment provided baseline information for determining a TAC (CRFM, 2007). An assessment of the spiny lobster fishery in Los Roques Archipelago in Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) with the PARFISH approach (Hoggarth et al., 2006) indicated that the stock was overexploited, and current biomass in 2008–09 was estimated at 14 percent of virgin biomass (Manzo, 2009).

The main landed shrimp species in Nicaragua (Penaeus notialis, P. brasiliensis, Penaeus subtilis and Litopenaeus schmitti) were assessed to be fully exploited in 2008. A reduction in fishing effort was reported, mainly owing to increasing operating costs(FAO, 2009b). In Mexico, status differs among species. The brown shrimp (F. aztecus) stock was found to be fully exploited, with fishing effort decreasing and yield increasing. The red spotted shrimp (F. brasiliensis) and the rock shrimp (Sicyoria brevirostris) show signs of deterioration, as biomass has fluctuated in the last few years, but with a decreasing trend. The northern pink shrimp (P. duorarum) has suffered from excessive fishing effort in the past. Other factors affecting the species included illegal fishing, habitat loss and unfavourable environmental conditions. The combined effect of these factors has led to the current historical low catches. The stock was considered as being overexploited and a reduction of fishing effort was recommended. Seabob (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri) in Mexico seems fully exploited, although no biomass estimate is currently available (SAGARPA, 2010). In the main fishing countries, Suriname and Guyana, it appears to be neither overfished nor subject to overfishing (CRFM, 2009b). In the United States of America, the pink shrimp was classified among the overfished stocks in the South Atlantic (NMFS, 2011), whereas brown and white shrimps were found not to be overfished (Nance, 2010).
The shrimp trawl fishery in Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) has been closed since March 2009. Mendoza et al. (2009) analysed available information on landings of different taxonomic groups and their nominal fishing effort. This assessment examined the status of each group by fleet between 1970 and 2008 in eastern Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of). They estimated biomass trajectories, MSY and the fishing effort corresponding to MSY, thus providing retrospective information on the status of different stocks.
Except for the red spotted shrimp (Penaeus brasiliensis), all stocks analysed seemed to show signs of overfishing in 2008.

Associated species of shrimp trawl fishery

Signs of slight recovery in abundance were seen for whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri), king weakfish (Macrodon ancylodon)along the Orinoco Delta or the Jamaica weakfish (Cynoscion jamaicensis) on the Margarita-Sucre platform. However, the authors cautioned the use of the results, owing to considerations of data limitations and inconsistencies in the measurement of fishing effort.

Blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) sustains an important fishery in west Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (Lake Maracaibo). Owing to the introduction of longlines in 2002, its landings increased steadily from 5 000 tonnes in 2001 to 10 500 tonnes in 2008.
Andrade de Pasquier et al. (2010) report a decrease in average size and an increase in the proportion of immature individuals in the catches. This indicates that there is a higher risk of overfishing caused by the use of longlines. These longlines are less selective than the pots that were used prior to 2002. On the other hand, recent assessments of the blue crab fishery in Florida waters indicated that the species was most probably not being overfished in the period 2002–05 (Murphy, McMillan-Jackson and Mahmoudi, 2007). Similarly, Callinectes spp. are estimated to be exploited at the MSY level in Mexico (SAGARPA, 2010).

As in the previous report period, the queen conch has shown signs of overexploitation where data are available. This is despite its inclusion in the CITES Appendix II list and the presence of rebuilding programmes. Several management measures are currently applied to the species, such as a cap on harvest, minimum legal size limit, and seasonal and spatial closures. In the United States of America, the queen conch was found to be subject to overfishing and overfished (NMFS, 2011). In Mexico, the stock was found to be in a deteriorating state (SAGARPA, 2010), although recovery signs were detected in protected areas (Cárdenas and Aranda, 2010). In Saint Lucia, an assessment made with data to 2008 shows that the abundance of the stock continues to decline. The stock is showing signs of overexploitation and this could lead to a collapse if no management action is taken (CRFM, 2009b). Recent surveys in the Bahamas indicate that the conch fisheries at Andros Island (Stoner and Davis, 2010) and on the Berry Islands bank are not sustainable (Stoner, Davis and Booker, 2009). In contrast, the stocks of Turks and Caicos Islands seem to be stable, with an acceptable level of biomass, although recent hurricanes Hanna and Ike are likely to have caused negative effects on this species (CRFM, 2010b). In Jamaica, catches of queen conch have decreased in recent years, as the national TAC (and individual quotas in the industrial fishery) has been reduced (Aiken et al., 2006). The stock seems to be neither overfished nor subject to overfishing. However, the lack of data made the results of the assessment not entirely satisfactory. Information is still badly needed in some regions for reliable assessment of the status of the stocks and there is significant concern over the continued illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing on Pedro Bank by foreign vessels.

American cupped oyster represents the most important fishery in the Gulf of Mexico in terms of landings, but is a low-valued species. In Mexico, catches of American cupped oyster have increased in recent years in Veracruz owing to an increase in fishing effort, whereas they have been stable in Tabasco. In Tamaulipas and Campeche, catches have decreased by more than 50 percent owing to unsatisfactory sanitary conditions, and this has prevented commercialization. Recently installed depuration plants have helped improve sanitary conditions and enabled the fishery to comply with required standards. The American cupped oyster is considered to be exploited at MSY in three provinces (Veracruz, Tabasco and Campeche) and underexploited in the province of Tamaulipas (SAGARPA, 2010). In the United States of America, historic low catches of American cupped oyster on the east coast led to an assessment to establish whether the species should be listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. However, the review team concluded that the species was not at risk (Eastern Oyster Biological Review Team, 2007).

In Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), no formal assessment exists for the expanding ark shell fishery, which has recently exceeded 70 000 tonnes. It has become the country’s most important fishery, but there is concern that these levels of exploitation may not be sustainable (Mendoza, personal communication).

In relation to octopus species in Mexico, Octopus maya is exploited at its MSY (SAGARPA, 2010). In contrast, some increases in the landings are believed to be possible for O. vulgaris, based mainly on the fact that the species is caught down to 36 m, whereas its habitat is likely to extend down to 150 m.

Area 31 includes 10 percent of the world’s coral reefs, which have relatively low diversity but high endemicity (Burke et al., 2011). Coral cover has been declining for decades and, since the 1980s, a major cause has been the declining nearshore water
quality. Other factors affecting corals include the impact of diseases affecting many corals, as well as the long-spined sea urchin (Diadema antillarum). This urchin has an important ecological role as a herbivore on overfished coral reefs, but disease induced
massive mortalities of D. antillarum in 1983-1984 led to macro-algal blooms in many reef areas that still persist (Bellwood et al., 2004). The international Year of the Reef and the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium in 2008 provided the occasion for taking stock of the status of coral reefs around the world and of major initiatives that have been undertaken. Because of unusually high temperatures in 2005, the Caribbean was one of the regions reporting the highest levels of damage to coral reefs, owing to mass coral bleaching as well as hurricanes in 2005 and 2006 (Wilkinson and Souter, 2008).
Significant loss of hard coral cover from bleaching and disease outbreaks was recorded in the United States Virgin Islands and Florida, Puerto Rico, Cayman Islands, Sint Maarten, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, Barbados,
Jamaica, Cuba, and Trinidad and Tobago. However, reefs at low risk are being still reported. These are either remote (Wider Caribbean) or well managed (Cuba) and signs of recovery have been detected in Florida and Jamaica. Nevertheless, the overall
situation is still fragile. The impact of projected climate changes (mainly elevated sea surface temperatures, ocean acidification and increased storm intensities) coupled with continuing harmful human activities such as overfishing, marine construction, sediment and nutrient pollution are a serious concern for the future of the reefs in Area 31. This concern led several Caribbean countries (the Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines) to pledge to conserve 20 percent of their marine and coastal habitats by 2010. This protection will occur through the Caribbean Challenge, with the support of the GEF, the Government of Germany, and the Nature Conservancy (Wilkinson, 2008). As of today, more than 75 percent of the reefs are considered threatened, with overfishing being one of the most important threats (Burke et al., 2011).

Information on seagrasses at the regional scale dates back to 2003, with a synthesis of the distribution and status of seagrass beds (Green and Short, 2003). This assessment indicated the presence of species, but did not provide details on the actual extent of seagrass beds. Research based on remotely sensed satellite images was initiated to fill this gap and has obtained promising results (Wabnitz et al., 2008). However, only preliminary results at very local scales are available so far.
Mangroves are among the important coastal habitats of ecological relevance to fisheries resources. Unlike in other parts of the world, the use of mangrove for fuel is not widespread in the Caribbean. Tourism, aquaculture, urban and coastal developments have each contributed to damaging the mangrove forests. It has been estimated that around 413 000ha of mangrove forests have been lost in Central America and the Caribbean between 1980 and 2000 at a rate of about 1% of total cover per annum (CARSEA, 2007). However, nature-based tourism (boat trips, birdwatching, sport fishing) is important enough to provide an economic incentive to protect mangroves in some areas. Several countries including the United States of America, Mexico and Cuba are showing considerable interest in mangrove protection (Spalding, Kainuma and Collins, 2010).

Another important feature in the region regards the spread of invasive species, such as the Indo-Pacific lionfish (Pterois  volitans), which is rapidly spreading throughout temperate and tropical Western Atlantic and Caribbean habitats. In several locations, lionfish abundances were described to be increasing quickly in past years (Morris et al., 2009). This invasive venomous species is generating concern as it is contributing to a deep change in the ecosystem, competing with native species and causing a reduction in the recruitment of native species (Ablins and Hixon, 2008). Lionfish is having negative effects on coral reefs, and control efforts are under way or under discussion. Studies are being undertaken throughout Area 31 to monitor the spreading of, and increase the knowledge on, the species.

Overall catches have declined since 1984. This is probably at least partly the result of overfishing. In some cases, it is also probably due to improved responses by management to overfishing risks, thereby limiting catches. This is despite management authorities often being slow to act on scientific advice. Although overall productivity in terms of biomass may be low in the Area, the value and value per capita will probably make these resources more important in terms of socio-economic contributions at the local and national level. For example, fish resources supplying local markets for tourists in the Lesser Antilles and other tourist destinations in the Area fetch high prices.
Despite these improvements in fisheries management, a number of species still suffer from overexploitation. Moreover, coastal habitat destruction through tourism, pollution and urban development is commonly reported. These factors have led to overall ecosystem degradation, especially of coral reefs and associated fisheries (Burke et al., 2011). Yet, these habitats are the basis of small-scale fisheries that have important economic, social and cultural roles in Area 31. It should be noted that this review is based on the species that are predominant in the landings reported by the countries in the Area. Therefore, it focuses on relatively large-scale fisheries owing to their higher relative contribution to those landings. Thus, it may not correctly reflect the status of the species targeted by the artisanal fisheries that dominate the insular Caribbean. Small countries with relatively low populations usually declare low nominal catches and, thus, are easily overlooked. This is particularly the case where very limited landing and stockstatus information is available for those countries. However, effort levels in some insular Caribbean countries show high fishing pressure on near shore ecosystems (Dunn et al., 2010). In the future, the per capita consumption of fish, as well as trade information (exports and imports) should be used to identify those countries that deserve additional attention. Efforts should be concentrated in these countries to improve the quality of data and information or undertake data collection. Moreover, the analysis of the trends of the landings should be made taking into account the context of global economy and in particular the evolution of fuel prices, as they influence directly the level of fishing in the absence of fuel subsidies for the fisheries sector (Sumaila et al., 2008).